.. _sec_integral_calculus:
Integral Calculus
=================
Differentiation only makes up half of the content of a traditional
calculus education. The other pillar, integration, starts out seeming a
rather disjoint question, "What is the area underneath this curve?"
While seemingly unrelated, integration is tightly intertwined with the
differentiation via what is known as the *fundamental theorem of
calculus*.
At the level of machine learning we discuss in this book, we will not
need a deep understanding of integration. However, we will provide a
brief introduction to lay the groundwork for any further applications we
will encounter later on.
Geometric Interpretation
------------------------
Suppose that we have a function :math:`f(x)`. For simplicity, let us
assume that :math:`f(x)` is non-negative (never takes a value less than
zero). What we want to try and understand is: what is the area contained
between :math:`f(x)` and the :math:`x`-axis?
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\diilbookstyleinputcell
.. code:: python
%matplotlib inline
from IPython import display
from mpl_toolkits import mplot3d
from mxnet import np, npx
from d2l import mxnet as d2l
npx.set_np()
x = np.arange(-2, 2, 0.01)
f = np.exp(-x**2)
d2l.set_figsize()
d2l.plt.plot(x, f, color='black')
d2l.plt.fill_between(x.tolist(), f.tolist())
d2l.plt.show()
.. figure:: output_integral-calculus_06e2a4_3_0.svg
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\diilbookstyleinputcell
.. code:: python
%matplotlib inline
import torch
from IPython import display
from mpl_toolkits import mplot3d
from d2l import torch as d2l
x = torch.arange(-2, 2, 0.01)
f = torch.exp(-x**2)
d2l.set_figsize()
d2l.plt.plot(x, f, color='black')
d2l.plt.fill_between(x.tolist(), f.tolist())
d2l.plt.show()
.. figure:: output_integral-calculus_06e2a4_6_0.svg
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\diilbookstyleinputcell
.. code:: python
%matplotlib inline
import tensorflow as tf
from IPython import display
from mpl_toolkits import mplot3d
from d2l import tensorflow as d2l
x = tf.range(-2, 2, 0.01)
f = tf.exp(-x**2)
d2l.set_figsize()
d2l.plt.plot(x, f, color='black')
d2l.plt.fill_between(x.numpy(), f.numpy())
d2l.plt.show()
.. figure:: output_integral-calculus_06e2a4_9_0.svg
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In most cases, this area will be infinite or undefined (consider the
area under :math:`f(x) = x^{2}`), so people will often talk about the
area between a pair of ends, say :math:`a` and :math:`b`.
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\diilbookstyleinputcell
.. code:: python
x = np.arange(-2, 2, 0.01)
f = np.exp(-x**2)
d2l.set_figsize()
d2l.plt.plot(x, f, color='black')
d2l.plt.fill_between(x.tolist()[50:250], f.tolist()[50:250])
d2l.plt.show()
.. figure:: output_integral-calculus_06e2a4_15_0.svg
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\diilbookstyleinputcell
.. code:: python
x = torch.arange(-2, 2, 0.01)
f = torch.exp(-x**2)
d2l.set_figsize()
d2l.plt.plot(x, f, color='black')
d2l.plt.fill_between(x.tolist()[50:250], f.tolist()[50:250])
d2l.plt.show()
.. figure:: output_integral-calculus_06e2a4_18_0.svg
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\diilbookstyleinputcell
.. code:: python
x = tf.range(-2, 2, 0.01)
f = tf.exp(-x**2)
d2l.set_figsize()
d2l.plt.plot(x, f, color='black')
d2l.plt.fill_between(x.numpy()[50:250], f.numpy()[50:250])
d2l.plt.show()
.. figure:: output_integral-calculus_06e2a4_21_0.svg
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We will denote this area by the integral symbol below:
.. math::
\mathrm{Area}(\mathcal{A}) = \int_a^b f(x) \;dx.
The inner variable is a dummy variable, much like the index of a sum in
a :math:`\sum`, and so this can be equivalently written with any inner
value we like:
.. math::
\int_a^b f(x) \;dx = \int_a^b f(z) \;dz.
There is a traditional way to try and understand how we might try to
approximate such integrals: we can imagine taking the region in-between
:math:`a` and :math:`b` and chopping it into :math:`N` vertical slices.
If :math:`N` is large, we can approximate the area of each slice by a
rectangle, and then add up the areas to get the total area under the
curve. Let us take a look at an example doing this in code. We will see
how to get the true value in a later section.
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\diilbookstyleinputcell
.. code:: python
epsilon = 0.05
a = 0
b = 2
x = np.arange(a, b, epsilon)
f = x / (1 + x**2)
approx = np.sum(epsilon*f)
true = np.log(2) / 2
d2l.set_figsize()
d2l.plt.bar(x.asnumpy(), f.asnumpy(), width=epsilon, align='edge')
d2l.plt.plot(x, f, color='black')
d2l.plt.ylim([0, 1])
d2l.plt.show()
f'approximation: {approx}, truth: {true}'
.. figure:: output_integral-calculus_06e2a4_27_0.svg
.. raw:: latex
\diilbookstyleoutputcell
.. parsed-literal::
:class: output
'approximation: 0.7944855690002441, truth: 0.34657359027997264'
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\diilbookstyleinputcell
.. code:: python
epsilon = 0.05
a = 0
b = 2
x = torch.arange(a, b, epsilon)
f = x / (1 + x**2)
approx = torch.sum(epsilon*f)
true = torch.log(torch.tensor([5.])) / 2
d2l.set_figsize()
d2l.plt.bar(x, f, width=epsilon, align='edge')
d2l.plt.plot(x, f, color='black')
d2l.plt.ylim([0, 1])
d2l.plt.show()
f'approximation: {approx}, truth: {true}'
.. figure:: output_integral-calculus_06e2a4_30_0.svg
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\diilbookstyleoutputcell
.. parsed-literal::
:class: output
'approximation: 0.7944855690002441, truth: tensor([0.8047])'
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\diilbookstyleinputcell
.. code:: python
epsilon = 0.05
a = 0
b = 2
x = tf.range(a, b, epsilon)
f = x / (1 + x**2)
approx = tf.reduce_sum(epsilon*f)
true = tf.math.log(tf.constant([5.])) / 2
d2l.set_figsize()
d2l.plt.bar(x, f, width=epsilon, align='edge')
d2l.plt.plot(x, f, color='black')
d2l.plt.ylim([0, 1])
d2l.plt.show()
f'approximation: {approx}, truth: {true}'
.. figure:: output_integral-calculus_06e2a4_33_0.svg
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\diilbookstyleoutputcell
.. parsed-literal::
:class: output
'approximation: 0.7944856286048889, truth: [0.804719]'
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The issue is that while it can be done numerically, we can do this
approach analytically for only the simplest functions like
.. math::
\int_a^b x \;dx.
Anything somewhat more complex like our example from the code above
.. math::
\int_a^b \frac{x}{1+x^{2}} \;dx.
is beyond what we can solve with such a direct method.
We will instead take a different approach. We will work intuitively with
the notion of the area, and learn the main computational tool used to
find integrals: the *fundamental theorem of calculus*. This will be the
basis for our study of integration.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
-----------------------------------
To dive deeper into the theory of integration, let us introduce a
function
.. math::
F(x) = \int_0^x f(y) dy.
This function measures the area between :math:`0` and :math:`x`
depending on how we change :math:`x`. Notice that this is everything we
need since
.. math::
\int_a^b f(x) \;dx = F(b) - F(a).
This is a mathematical encoding of the fact that we can measure the area
out to the far end-point and then subtract off the area to the near end
point as indicated in :numref:`fig_area-subtract`.
.. _fig_area-subtract:
.. figure:: ../img/sub-area.svg
Visualizing why we may reduce the problem of computing the area under
a curve between two points to computing the area to the left of a
point.
Thus, we can figure out what the integral over any interval is by
figuring out what :math:`F(x)` is.
To do so, let us consider an experiment. As we often do in calculus, let
us imagine what happens when we shift the value by a tiny bit. From the
comment above, we know that
.. math::
F(x+\epsilon) - F(x) = \int_x^{x+\epsilon} f(y) \; dy.
This tells us that the function changes by the area under a tiny sliver
of a function.
This is the point at which we make an approximation. If we look at a
tiny sliver of area like this, it looks like this area is close to the
rectangular area with height the value of :math:`f(x)` and the base
width :math:`\epsilon`. Indeed, one can show that as
:math:`\epsilon \rightarrow 0` this approximation becomes better and
better. Thus we can conclude:
.. math::
F(x+\epsilon) - F(x) \approx \epsilon f(x).
However, we can now notice: this is exactly the pattern we expect if we
were computing the derivative of :math:`F`! Thus we see the following
rather surprising fact:
.. math::
\frac{dF}{dx}(x) = f(x).
This is the *fundamental theorem of calculus*. We may write it in
expanded form as
.. math:: \frac{d}{dx}\int_{-\infty}^x f(y) \; dy = f(x).
:label: eq_ftc
It takes the concept of finding areas (*a priori* rather hard), and
reduces it to a statement derivatives (something much more completely
understood). One last comment that we must make is that this does not
tell us exactly what :math:`F(x)` is. Indeed :math:`F(x) + C` for any
:math:`C` has the same derivative. This is a fact-of-life in the theory
of integration. Thankfully, notice that when working with definite
integrals, the constants drop out, and thus are irrelevant to the
outcome.
.. math::
\int_a^b f(x) \; dx = (F(b) + C) - (F(a) + C) = F(b) - F(a).
This may seem like abstract non-sense, but let us take a moment to
appreciate that it has given us a whole new perspective on computing
integrals. Our goal is no-longer to do some sort of chop-and-sum process
to try and recover the area, rather we need only find a function whose
derivative is the function we have! This is incredible since we can now
list many rather difficult integrals by just reversing the table from
:numref:`sec_derivative_table`. For instance, we know that the
derivative of :math:`x^{n}` is :math:`nx^{n-1}`. Thus, we can say using
the fundamental theorem :eq:`eq_ftc` that
.. math::
\int_0^{x} ny^{n-1} \; dy = x^n - 0^n = x^n.
Similarly, we know that the derivative of :math:`e^{x}` is itself, so
that means
.. math::
\int_0^{x} e^{x} \; dx = e^{x} - e^{0} = e^x - 1.
In this way, we can develop the entire theory of integration leveraging
ideas from differential calculus freely. Every integration rule derives
from this one fact.
.. _integral_example:
Change of Variables
-------------------
Just as with differentiation, there are a number of rules which make the
computation of integrals more tractable. In fact, every rule of
differential calculus (like the product rule, sum rule, and chain rule)
has a corresponding rule for integral calculus (integration by parts,
linearity of integration, and the change of variables formula
respectively). In this section, we will dive into what is arguably the
most important from the list: the change of variables formula.
First, suppose that we have a function which is itself an integral:
.. math::
F(x) = \int_0^x f(y) \; dy.
Let us suppose that we want to know how this function looks when we
compose it with another to obtain :math:`F(u(x))`. By the chain rule, we
know
.. math::
\frac{d}{dx}F(u(x)) = \frac{dF}{du}(u(x))\cdot \frac{du}{dx}.
We can turn this into a statement about integration by using the
fundamental theorem :eq:`eq_ftc` as above. This gives
.. math::
F(u(x)) - F(u(0)) = \int_0^x \frac{dF}{du}(u(y))\cdot \frac{du}{dy} \;dy.
Recalling that :math:`F` is itself an integral gives that the left hand
side may be rewritten to be
.. math::
\int_{u(0)}^{u(x)} f(y) \; dy = \int_0^x \frac{dF}{du}(u(y))\cdot \frac{du}{dy} \;dy.
Similarly, recalling that :math:`F` is an integral allows us to
recognize that :math:`\frac{dF}{dx} = f` using the fundamental theorem
:eq:`eq_ftc`, and thus we may conclude
.. math:: \int_{u(0)}^{u(x)} f(y) \; dy = \int_0^x f(u(y))\cdot \frac{du}{dy} \;dy.
:label: eq_change_var
This is the *change of variables* formula.
For a more intuitive derivation, consider what happens when we take an
integral of :math:`f(u(x))` between :math:`x` and :math:`x+\epsilon`.
For a small :math:`\epsilon`, this integral is approximately
:math:`\epsilon f(u(x))`, the area of the associated rectangle. Now, let
us compare this with the integral of :math:`f(y)` from :math:`u(x)` to
:math:`u(x+\epsilon)`. We know that
:math:`u(x+\epsilon) \approx u(x) + \epsilon \frac{du}{dx}(x)`, so the
area of this rectangle is approximately
:math:`\epsilon \frac{du}{dx}(x)f(u(x))`. Thus, to make the area of
these two rectangles to agree, we need to multiply the first one by
:math:`\frac{du}{dx}(x)` as is illustrated in
:numref:`fig_rect-transform`.
.. _fig_rect-transform:
.. figure:: ../img/rect-trans.svg
Visualizing the transformation of a single thin rectangle under the
change of variables.
This tells us that
.. math::
\int_x^{x+\epsilon} f(u(y))\frac{du}{dy}(y)\;dy = \int_{u(x)}^{u(x+\epsilon)} f(y) \; dy.
This is the change of variables formula expressed for a single small
rectangle.
If :math:`u(x)` and :math:`f(x)` are properly chosen, this can allow for
the computation of incredibly complex integrals. For instance, if we
even chose :math:`f(y) = 1` and :math:`u(x) = e^{-x^{2}}` (which means
:math:`\frac{du}{dx}(x) = -2xe^{-x^{2}}`), this can show for instance
that
.. math::
e^{-1} - 1 = \int_{e^{-0}}^{e^{-1}} 1 \; dy = -2\int_0^{1} ye^{-y^2}\;dy,
and thus by rearranging that
.. math::
\int_0^{1} ye^{-y^2}\; dy = \frac{1-e^{-1}}{2}.
A Comment on Sign Conventions
-----------------------------
Keen-eyed readers will observe something strange about the computations
above. Namely, computations like
.. math::
\int_{e^{-0}}^{e^{-1}} 1 \; dy = e^{-1} -1 < 0,
can produce negative numbers. When thinking about areas, it can be
strange to see a negative value, and so it is worth digging into what
the convention is.
Mathematicians take the notion of signed areas. This manifests itself in
two ways. First, if we consider a function :math:`f(x)` which is
sometimes less than zero, then the area will also be negative. So for
instance
.. math::
\int_0^{1} (-1)\;dx = -1.
Similarly, integrals which progress from right to left, rather than left
to right are also taken to be negative areas
.. math::
\int_0^{-1} 1\; dx = -1.
The standard area (from left to right of a positive function) is always
positive. Anything obtained by flipping it (say flipping over the
:math:`x`-axis to get the integral of a negative number, or flipping
over the :math:`y`-axis to get an integral in the wrong order) will
produce a negative area. And indeed, flipping twice will give a pair of
negative signs that cancel out to have positive area
.. math::
\int_0^{-1} (-1)\;dx = 1.
If this discussion sounds familiar, it is! In
:numref:`sec_geometry-linear-algebraic-ops` we discussed how the
determinant represented the signed area in much the same way.
Multiple Integrals
------------------
In some cases, we will need to work in higher dimensions. For instance,
suppose that we have a function of two variables, like :math:`f(x, y)`
and we want to know the volume under :math:`f` when :math:`x` ranges
over :math:`[a, b]` and :math:`y` ranges over :math:`[c, d]`.
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\diilbookstyleinputcell
.. code:: python
# Construct grid and compute function
x, y = np.meshgrid(np.linspace(-2, 2, 101), np.linspace(-2, 2, 101),
indexing='ij')
z = np.exp(- x**2 - y**2)
# Plot function
ax = d2l.plt.figure().add_subplot(111, projection='3d')
ax.plot_wireframe(x.asnumpy(), y.asnumpy(), z.asnumpy())
d2l.plt.xlabel('x')
d2l.plt.ylabel('y')
d2l.plt.xticks([-2, -1, 0, 1, 2])
d2l.plt.yticks([-2, -1, 0, 1, 2])
d2l.set_figsize()
ax.set_xlim(-2, 2)
ax.set_ylim(-2, 2)
ax.set_zlim(0, 1)
ax.dist = 12
.. figure:: output_integral-calculus_06e2a4_39_0.svg
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\diilbookstyleinputcell
.. code:: python
# Construct grid and compute function
x, y = torch.meshgrid(torch.linspace(-2, 2, 101), torch.linspace(-2, 2, 101))
z = torch.exp(- x**2 - y**2)
# Plot function
ax = d2l.plt.figure().add_subplot(111, projection='3d')
ax.plot_wireframe(x, y, z)
d2l.plt.xlabel('x')
d2l.plt.ylabel('y')
d2l.plt.xticks([-2, -1, 0, 1, 2])
d2l.plt.yticks([-2, -1, 0, 1, 2])
d2l.set_figsize()
ax.set_xlim(-2, 2)
ax.set_ylim(-2, 2)
ax.set_zlim(0, 1)
ax.dist = 12
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\diilbookstyleoutputcell
.. parsed-literal::
:class: output
/home/d2l-worker/miniconda3/envs/d2l-en-classic-1/lib/python3.9/site-packages/torch/functional.py:478: UserWarning: torch.meshgrid: in an upcoming release, it will be required to pass the indexing argument. (Triggered internally at ../aten/src/ATen/native/TensorShape.cpp:2895.)
return _VF.meshgrid(tensors, **kwargs) # type: ignore[attr-defined]
.. figure:: output_integral-calculus_06e2a4_42_1.svg
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\diilbookstyleinputcell
.. code:: python
# Construct grid and compute function
x, y = tf.meshgrid(tf.linspace(-2., 2., 101), tf.linspace(-2., 2., 101))
z = tf.exp(- x**2 - y**2)
# Plot function
ax = d2l.plt.figure().add_subplot(111, projection='3d')
ax.plot_wireframe(x, y, z)
d2l.plt.xlabel('x')
d2l.plt.ylabel('y')
d2l.plt.xticks([-2, -1, 0, 1, 2])
d2l.plt.yticks([-2, -1, 0, 1, 2])
d2l.set_figsize()
ax.set_xlim(-2, 2)
ax.set_ylim(-2, 2)
ax.set_zlim(0, 1)
ax.dist = 12
.. figure:: output_integral-calculus_06e2a4_45_0.svg
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We write this as
.. math::
\int_{[a, b]\times[c, d]} f(x, y)\;dx\;dy.
Suppose that we wish to compute this integral. My claim is that we can
do this by iteratively computing first the integral in :math:`x` and
then shifting to the integral in :math:`y`, that is to say
.. math::
\int_{[a, b]\times[c, d]} f(x, y)\;dx\;dy = \int_c^{d} \left(\int_a^{b} f(x, y) \;dx\right) \; dy.
Let us see why this is.
Consider the figure above where we have split the function into
:math:`\epsilon \times \epsilon` squares which we will index with
integer coordinates :math:`i, j`. In this case, our integral is
approximately
.. math::
\sum_{i, j} \epsilon^{2} f(\epsilon i, \epsilon j).
Once we discretize the problem, we may add up the values on these
squares in whatever order we like, and not worry about changing the
values. This is illustrated in :numref:`fig_sum-order`. In particular,
we can say that
.. math::
\sum _ {j} \epsilon \left(\sum_{i} \epsilon f(\epsilon i, \epsilon j)\right).
.. _fig_sum-order:
.. figure:: ../img/sum-order.svg
Illustrating how to decompose a sum over many squares as a sum over
first the columns (1), then adding the column sums together (2).
The sum on the inside is precisely the discretization of the integral
.. math::
G(\epsilon j) = \int _a^{b} f(x, \epsilon j) \; dx.
Finally, notice that if we combine these two expressions we get
.. math::
\sum _ {j} \epsilon G(\epsilon j) \approx \int _ {c}^{d} G(y) \; dy = \int _ {[a, b]\times[c, d]} f(x, y)\;dx\;dy.
Thus putting it all together, we have that
.. math::
\int _ {[a, b]\times[c, d]} f(x, y)\;dx\;dy = \int _ c^{d} \left(\int _ a^{b} f(x, y) \;dx\right) \; dy.
Notice that, once discretized, all we did was rearrange the order in
which we added a list of numbers. This may make it seem like it is
nothing, however this result (called *Fubini's Theorem*) is not always
true! For the type of mathematics encountered when doing machine
learning (continuous functions), there is no concern, however it is
possible to create examples where it fails (for example the function
:math:`f(x, y) = xy(x^2-y^2)/(x^2+y^2)^3` over the rectangle
:math:`[0,2]\times[0,1]`).
Note that the choice to do the integral in :math:`x` first, and then the
integral in :math:`y` was arbitrary. We could have equally well chosen
to do :math:`y` first and then :math:`x` to see
.. math::
\int _ {[a, b]\times[c, d]} f(x, y)\;dx\;dy = \int _ a^{b} \left(\int _ c^{d} f(x, y) \;dy\right) \; dx.
Often times, we will condense down to vector notation, and say that for
:math:`U = [a, b]\times [c, d]` this is
.. math::
\int _ U f(\mathbf{x})\;d\mathbf{x}.
Change of Variables in Multiple Integrals
-----------------------------------------
As with single variables in :eq:`eq_change_var`, the ability to
change variables inside a higher dimensional integral is a key tool. Let
us summarize the result without derivation.
We need a function that reparameterizes our domain of integration. We
can take this to be
:math:`\phi : \mathbb{R}^n \rightarrow \mathbb{R}^n`, that is any
function which takes in :math:`n` real variables and returns another
:math:`n`. To keep the expressions clean, we will assume that
:math:`\phi` is *injective* which is to say it never folds over itself
(:math:`\phi(\mathbf{x}) = \phi(\mathbf{y}) \implies \mathbf{x} = \mathbf{y}`).
In this case, we can say that
.. math::
\int _ {\phi(U)} f(\mathbf{x})\;d\mathbf{x} = \int _ {U} f(\phi(\mathbf{x})) \left|\det(D\phi(\mathbf{x}))\right|\;d\mathbf{x}.
where :math:`D\phi` is the *Jacobian* of :math:`\phi`, which is the
matrix of partial derivatives of
:math:`\boldsymbol{\phi} = (\phi_1(x_1, \ldots, x_n), \ldots, \phi_n(x_1, \ldots, x_n))`,
.. math::
D\boldsymbol{\phi} = \begin{bmatrix}
\frac{\partial \phi _ 1}{\partial x _ 1} & \cdots & \frac{\partial \phi _ 1}{\partial x _ n} \\
\vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
\frac{\partial \phi _ n}{\partial x _ 1} & \cdots & \frac{\partial \phi _ n}{\partial x _ n}
\end{bmatrix}.
Looking closely, we see that this is similar to the single variable
chain rule :eq:`eq_change_var`, except we have replaced the term
:math:`\frac{du}{dx}(x)` with
:math:`\left|\det(D\phi(\mathbf{x}))\right|`. Let us see how we can to
interpret this term. Recall that the :math:`\frac{du}{dx}(x)` term
existed to say how much we stretched our :math:`x`-axis by applying
:math:`u`. The same process in higher dimensions is to determine how
much we stretch the area (or volume, or hyper-volume) of a little square
(or little *hyper-cube*) by applying :math:`\boldsymbol{\phi}`. If
:math:`\boldsymbol{\phi}` was the multiplication by a matrix, then we
know how the determinant already gives the answer.
With some work, one can show that the *Jacobian* provides the best
approximation to a multivariable function :math:`\boldsymbol{\phi}` at a
point by a matrix in the same way we could approximate by lines or
planes with derivatives and gradients. Thus the determinant of the
Jacobian exactly mirrors the scaling factor we identified in one
dimension.
It takes some work to fill in the details to this, so do not worry if
they are not clear now. Let us see at least one example we will make use
of later on. Consider the integral
.. math::
\int _ {-\infty}^{\infty} \int _ {-\infty}^{\infty} e^{-x^{2}-y^{2}} \;dx\;dy.
Playing with this integral directly will get us no-where, but if we
change variables, we can make significant progress. If we let
:math:`\boldsymbol{\phi}(r, \theta) = (r \cos(\theta), r\sin(\theta))`
(which is to say that :math:`x = r \cos(\theta)`,
:math:`y = r \sin(\theta)`), then we can apply the change of variable
formula to see that this is the same thing as
.. math::
\int _ 0^\infty \int_0 ^ {2\pi} e^{-r^{2}} \left|\det(D\mathbf{\phi}(\mathbf{x}))\right|\;d\theta\;dr,
where
.. math::
\left|\det(D\mathbf{\phi}(\mathbf{x}))\right| = \left|\det\begin{bmatrix}
\cos(\theta) & -r\sin(\theta) \\
\sin(\theta) & r\cos(\theta)
\end{bmatrix}\right| = r(\cos^{2}(\theta) + \sin^{2}(\theta)) = r.
Thus, the integral is
.. math::
\int _ 0^\infty \int _ 0 ^ {2\pi} re^{-r^{2}} \;d\theta\;dr = 2\pi\int _ 0^\infty re^{-r^{2}} \;dr = \pi,
where the final equality follows by the same computation that we used in
section :numref:`integral_example`.
We will meet this integral again when we study continuous random
variables in :numref:`sec_random_variables`.
Summary
-------
- The theory of integration allows us to answer questions about areas
or volumes.
- The fundamental theorem of calculus allows us to leverage knowledge
about derivatives to compute areas via the observation that the
derivative of the area up to some point is given by the value of the
function being integrated.
- Integrals in higher dimensions can be computed by iterating single
variable integrals.
Exercises
---------
1. What is :math:`\int_1^2 \frac{1}{x} \;dx`?
2. Use the change of variables formula to integrate
:math:`\int_0^{\sqrt{\pi}}x\sin(x^2)\;dx`.
3. What is :math:`\int_{[0,1]^2} xy \;dx\;dy`?
4. Use the change of variables formula to compute
:math:`\int_0^2\int_0^1xy(x^2-y^2)/(x^2+y^2)^3\;dy\;dx` and
:math:`\int_0^1\int_0^2f(x, y) = xy(x^2-y^2)/(x^2+y^2)^3\;dx\;dy` to
see they are different.
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